River Nile
Factfile
Length: 6,650 km (Longest river in the world)
Key Tributaries: White Nile, Blue Nile & Atbara (Ethiopia)
Basin area: 3.349 million km² 10% of africa
Countries within: Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, DRC, Kenya, Uganda, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Sudan, Egypt
Basin Population: 257 mil (estimated)
Discharge: 2,830 m³/s
Map showing the course of the River Nile
Physical Geography
Due to sheer size and scale of the River Nile and its catchment area the physical setting of the River Nile will be divided into the distinct regions: the sources, The confluence of the Blue and White Nile as well as the Nile delta.
Formation/Geology
The River Nile is thought to be approximately 30 million years old, however, at that point in time the Nile was a much smaller system being disconnected from the much larger drainage system to the south. It is theorised that around 25,000 years ago Lake Victoria developed a stream to the north which discharged water into Lake Sudd leading to the transportation of fluvial material over a long period of time. The supply of this material combined with the increase in discharge into Lake Sudd led to an increase in the overall water level of the lake. As a result of the increase in water level, Lake Sudd eventually discharged its entire contents to the North forming the connected drainage system to the Nile catchment creating the large drainage basin that is currently seen today.
Geomorphology
Across the long profile of the river Nile from its sources in the Ethiopia Highlands, Lake Tana in Ethiopia and Lake Victoria in Uganda to the mouth of the river into the Mediterranean sea at the Nile delta in Egypt, the geomorphology and land cover differs greatly. In the southern regions of the basin near the sources of the river the region is much more mountainous with the presence of many lakes and swamps in the area as a result of the much wetter climate. However, at the confluence of the Blue Nile and White Nile in Sudan forming the River Nile, the land cover becomes much more arid with minimal relief in the land. The Nile then flows through Sudan into Egypt through a desert landscape with the western desert of the Sahara and the Eastern desert which extends to the red sea flanking the River Nile for most of Egypt until the Nile reaches the Mediterranean sea and forms the Nile Delta a Landform that covers approximately 20,000 km² providing a lush green oasis in the middle of the arid Northern Nile Basin. The Nile delta itself is an Arcuate delta known for its “arc-like” shape and is said to be the origin of the term Delta to describe this landform as a result of ancient greek philosophers comparing the similarity of the landforms shape to the greek symbol “Δ” meaning Delta.
Climate
Due to the vast size of the Nile basin, there are many differences in climate throughout the whole region. The southern region of the Nile Basin including the countries of Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, has a much wetter climate as compared to the Northern Region of the basin where the climate becomes arid as seen in Egypt with the presence of the Sahara Desert (Camberlin, 2009). This can be seen with the average annual precipitation across the basin being 650 mm while in the northern regions of the basin in the Nile Delta precipitation is less than 300 mm a year showing the disparity between the more arid northern Nile basin and the wetter southern Nile basin Precipitation pattern do, however, vary across the basin due to the interplay of local topography and the presence of Lakes and Swamps on a local scale (Camberlin, 2009). Temperatures throughout the Nile basin also show a high level of local variability due to the changes in topography, land cover and land use, however, in general the basin sees large swings in the average temperature of the basin with mean summer temperatures of approximately 30°C while mean winter temperatures vary between 5 and 10°C (Nile Basin Initiative, 2012).
Ecosystems
In terms of ecosystems within the Nile Basin, the best example is the Nile delta, a rich lush area in terms of ecology in the middle of a desert. This region highlights some of the key ecosystems in the whole of the Nile Basin.
Ecological Setting
The Nile Basin can be divided into 16 terrestrial ecoregions, a distinct assemblage of plants and animals that share the same environmental conditions to benefit one another to support long-term survival, the Nile Delta is classified as Saharan Woodlands and Steppe cover (Nile Basin Initiative, 2012). As such, the Nile Delta provides an oasis in the heart of an arid region of Africa, with the Nile bringin nutrient rich sediment from the whole basin into the region, which is deposited to form the delta, as such the Nile Delta extremely fertile region supporting a vast ecosystem allowing for Egypt to flourish (Alfiky et al., 2012; Nile Basin Initiative, 2012; Garcia et al., 2010; El Banna & Frihy, 2009). The Nile Delta’s saharan woodland and steppe ecosystem can be divided into four distinctive regions: the Nile River and its floodplain, the wetland/marsh region includes lagoons & lakes, the arid region and finally the coastal with its beach and dune system (Garcia et al., 2010; Rasmussen et al., 2009; Wahaab & Badawy, 2004).
Flora
There is a long storied history of rich flora in the Nile Delta region with Reeds and Papyrus, which are interlinked with Egypt’s history, dominating the banks of the Nile throughout the Delta thousands of years ago (Nile Basin Initiative, 2012; Bernhardt et al., 2011). The high level of papyrus has since been reduced with it being found currently in only small clusters in the Damietta branch of the Nile Delta (Rebelo & McCartney, 2013; Nile Basin Initiative, 2012; Bernhardt et al., 2011).
There are high concentrations of both aquatic and terrestrial plants throughout the delta region. The aquatic plants of the Nile Delta can be separated into three categories: Riparian vegetation, floating vegetation and emergent vegetation. Riparian vegetation is confined to the riparian zone along the riverbanks in the area of interaction between the fluvial system and the floodplain. As such, the vegetation in this region thrives with its proximity to the river course, this vegetation in the Nile Delta includes common hornwort, Canadian and curly-leaf pondweed and Egyptian lotus (Nile Basin Initiative, 2012; Bernhardt et al., 2011). The floating vegetation is unique in that this vegetation is rooted in floating water or is not rooted into sediment but just on the surface of the river, this vegetation can however, affect the biodiversity of aquatic vegetation (Scheffer et al., 2003). In the Nile Delta the floating plants include water fern, water hyacinth, duckweed and pondweed (Nile Basin Initiative, 2012). The final type of aquatic vegetation is emergent vegetation, this vegetation is rooted in sediment with roots that are fully submerged by water these are mostly found in wetlands adjacent to the fluvial system itself. In the Nile Delta the main emergent plants include foxtail and jointed flatsedge, common and Spanish reed and common cattail (Nile Basin Initiative, 2012; Bernhardt et al., 2011).
There are many terrestrial species of vegetation throughout the Nile Delta with 537 recorded species across the entirety of the delta, 130 of these individual species being found in the coastal region alone (Shaltout et al., 2010; Mashaly et al., 2008). Overall the flora in the Nile Delta represents 25.3% of the entire flora of Egypt (Shaltout et al., 2010). However, the flora in this region is dominated by agricultural practices with the selection of certain crop species, such as cotton, sugar beets and rice, greatly reducing the biodiversity in the region (Alfiky et al., 2012; Abd El-Kawy et al., 2011).
Fauna
The fauna of the Nile Delta has played major roles in the development of culture within the region with many of the fauna being represented through the ancient religions of the region such as the Nile Crocodile (Brito et al., 2011). Other species also aided in the development of the region with camels allowing for transport in the region and grazing animals being used in early agricultural practices (Nile Basin Initiative, 2012).
As the Nile Delta is classified a Saharan woodland and steppe ecoregion the fauna throughout is varied greatly with terrestrial fauna being attracted to the region due to the more hospitable conditions as compared to the rest of Egypt and the Nile basin (Nile Basin Initiative, 2012). As such, there are many Mammals, Reptiles, Birds and Amphibians in the region. Currently there are many smaller, wild mammals such as hares, ground squirrels, rock hyrax, rats, shrews and weasels, with the larger mammals such as sheep, goats and camel mainly situated on pasturelands for agricultural practices (Nile Basin Initiative, 2012). The reptiles in the region mainly consists of different snake species such as the Saharan sand viper, with the amphibians of the Nile Delta including toads and frogs such as the Nile Delta toad (Amietophrynus kassasii) and the Levant green frog (Pelophylax bedriagae) (Ibrahim, 2014; Nile Basin Initiative, 2012). Many birds use the Nile Delta as a migration region including gulls and terns such as the little tern (Sterna albifrons), the lagoons and lakes of the Nile Delta also attract species of birds such as the white-breasted kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis) (Green, 2009).
The Aquatic fauna of the Nile Delta includes a wide mix of both freshwater and marine species due to the interactions of fresh and salt water within the delta itself (Temraz et al., 2016). The freshwater fauna is mainly dominated by species of tilapia, due to aquacultural practices, which make up most of the catch in the region (Temraz et al., 2016; Witte, Graaf, et al., 2009). There are also many species of catfish (C. gariepinus) found throughout the lakes of the Nile Delta including Lake Borullus (Witte, Oijen, et al., 2009). Marine species in the region mainly include those that are tolerant of freshwater such as soles, mullets, seabass and shrimp that can be found in the lakes of the Nile Delta (Temraz et al., 2016).
Human Geography
The Nile Delta ecosystem has changed greatly over time with the whole of the now arid region previously being extremely fertile during the African Humid Period, ca. 8000-5500 cal. Yr B.P., where the area was categorised by a “Green Sahara desert” (Bernhardt et al., 2012; Claussen et al., 2002). This was due to the positioning of the ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) being located more northward bringing monsoon conditions to Sahara desert allowing the area to flourish (Bernhardt et al., 2012; Adkins et al., 2006). However, the “Green Sahara desert” began to reduce in size after experiencing severe aridity events at approximately Ca. 4200 cal. Yr B.P. leading to the migration of flora and fauna to the Nile Delta (Bernhardt et al., 2012).
Present Setting
In recent history the Nile Delta has changed greatly with anthropogenic leading to the Delta no longer functioning as an active natural Delta due to the large influence of agricultural and aquacultural practices (Day et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2012). In the past 25 years development across the Delta has seen a large increase in the level of aquaculture and urban development, 13% and 22% increases respectively, leading to reductions in agricultural and natural land as well as natural waterbodies (Ali & El-Magd, 2016). Due to the large population situated in the region, the Nile Delta is an example of an almost completely anthropogenically developed delta depleting the region of any natural environment (Day et al., 2016; Bernhardt et al., 2012; Nile Basin Initiative, 2012; Abd El-Kawy et al., 2011).
Due to the prime conditions that the Nile banks provide, the region has been recognised as one of the original areas of intense agricultural activity since ancient times, with a prime example being the Nile Delta in Egypt . As such the region has attracted large populations for thousands of years, with many diverse cultures, from the ancient egyptians, to the roman occupation in 619 CE to modern Egypt following the withdrawal of british forces in 1953 .
Due to the vast size of the Nile basin there are approximately 257 million people living within the catchment area however the most densely populated regions being the Nile delta in Egypt containing approximately 95 million people .
Nile basin countries have a high level of dependence on the Nile itself providing nutrient rich floodplains and a source of fresh water that fuels agriculture and aquaculture throughout these countries. As such there are major conflicts that occur between these countries on the usage of the Nile in upstream regions as this impacts those countries that are situated downstream. A prime example of this has occurred in recent years with the development of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile, this project began development in 2011 and was opened in July 2020. The purpose of this dam is to aid the development of Ethiopia providing a renewable source of energy for the country through hydropower generation, relieving the high level of energy shortages seen . However, downstream countries, mainly Egypt, were opposed to the scale of the GERD due to the effects that this could potentially pose to the Nile itself impeding not only the flow of the Blue Nile but also the transportation of nutrient rich sediments within the river. The potential to reduce the amount of water within the Nile and the nutrients that many regions depend on for agricultural practices, led to a resistance from Egypt and Sudan.
The dispute over who has rights to the Nile’s water is a controversial topic with Ethiopia stating the necessity of providing its population with a reliable source of clean energy. While Egypt argues that damming a river that provides 90% of the counties freshwater, exacerbating the current water crisis, to be too much of an issue to the security of Egypt and the many industries within the country especially with the view that Ethiopia can control the flow of the Nile itself. This has now become the largest international political issue within the Nile Basin with Egypt and Sudan claiming a larger amount of control over the overall usage of the Nile waters thanks to colonial era treaties of 1929 and 1959 that provided both with veto powers for any projects on the by any upstream powers. While Ethiopia claims that it should not have to adhere to a decades old treaty that does not reflect the current setting of the Nile basin’s countries and the needs of those countries to provide for their population. The issue of the GERD continues with the Ethopia beginning the process of operating the dam in July 2020 with plans to fill the dam over a 6-year period beginning in the Rainy season of December 2020. While egypt argue that this filling process should be done over a much longer time period, 12-21 years, in order to ensure that there are no substantial drops in the water level within the Nile itself, which Ethiopia have stated to not be an acceptable timeframe for this project.
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